In admitting the factual portions of the report but excluding the opinion evidence Mr. Justice Pearlman provided the following reasons: . [A, a witness dies after examination-in-chief but before his cross-examination. The use of this website to ask questions or receive answers does not create an attorneyclient relationship between you and Justia, or between you and any attorney who receives your information or responds to your questions, nor is it intended to create such a relationship. Given this almighty challenge, one might consider that only a few would be so ambitious, if not outright presumptuous, to write for the benefit of others how to conduct a cross-examination. Testimony given at a preliminary hearing was held in California v. Green, 399 U.S. 149, 90 S.Ct. The same considerations suggest abandonment of the limitation to circumstances attending the event in question, yet when the statement deals with matters other than the supposed death, its influence is believed to be sufficiently attenuated to justify the limitation. Ordinarily the third-party confession is thought of in terms of exculpating the accused, but this is by no means always or necessarily the case: it may include statements implicating him, and under the general theory of declarations against interest they would be admissible as related statements. considering the cases referred to above as well as similar cases in
I am of the opinion that where cross-examination
This includes the right to be present at the trial (which is guaranteed by the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure Rule 43 ). (at para 26). cross-examination of the complainant concerning the contents (Wepener J) concerned a state witness in a trial in the district
Dec. 1, 2011. In terms of the common law such right it was the cross-examiners intention to return to any
McCormick 254, pp. The rule applies to all parties, including the government. Dr. Andrew Baker. Kansas by decision extended the exception to civil cases. Khumalo J came to the conclusion that if a witness dies before cross-examination commences, his evidence is untested and must be regarded as pro non scripto (at 531e). Notes of Advisory Committee on Rules1997 Amendment. c) Yes, the court can choose to do away with the evidence presented by the late defense witness if it deems so fit. Although
that there are two different approaches by the courts. In a trial of Sessions case, or a Civil Case including the Motor Accidents Claims Cases, the cross examination of a witness is considered as the major element in a trial. These changes are intended to be stylistic only. If the conditions otherwise constituting unavailability result from the procurement or wrongdoing of the proponent of the statement, the requirement is not satisfied. on his right to a fair trial guaranteed by the Constitution. The circumstantial guaranty of reliability for declarations against interest is the assumption that persons do not make statements which are damaging to themselves unless satisfied for good reason that they are true. earlier cases in South Africa and elsewhere. In the case before Andhra HC of Somagutta Sivasankara Reddy v. Five instances of unavailability are specified: (1) Substantial authority supports the position that exercise of a claim of privilege by the declarant satisfies the requirement of unavailability (usually in connection with former testimony). The Court rule also proposed to expand the hearsay limitation from its present federal limitation to include statements subjecting the declarant to statements tending to make him an object of hatred, ridicule, or disgrace. Last 30 Days. Mattox v. United States, 156 U.S. 237, 15 S.Ct. Higham v. Ridgeway, 10 East 109, 103 Eng.Rep. it may have affected the outcome of the case. The rule departs to the extent of allowing substitution of one with the right and opportunity to develop the testimony with similar motive and interest. whose evidence is prejudicial or potentially prejudicial to him or
There is no intent to change any result in any ruling on evidence admissibility. It appeared that, over the long
Generally, the right is to have a face-to-face confrontation with witnesses who are offering testimonial evidence against the accused in the form of cross-examination during a trial. McCormick 232, pp. Cross-examining a witness can be very difficult, even for lawyers who have spent a lot of time in court. 11, 1997, eff. 204804(4); West's Wis. Stats. The other is simply to rule it inadmissible. The amendment does not address the use of the corroborating circumstances for declarations against penal interest offered in civil cases. Thus, the evidence given by a witness, although he had not been cross-examined may be admissible in evidence. However, no reason is apparent for making distinctions as to what satisfies unavailability for the different exceptions. defendant be excused from further attendance and that the evidence
A
3.Where the non-cross-examination is from the motive of delicacy. It should be kept in mind that this is subject to certain conditions. 1074, 13 L.Ed.2d 934 (1965), and Bruton v. United States, 389 U.S. 818, 88 S.Ct. No substantive change is intended. convicted of
651, n. 1 (1963); McCormick 231, p. 483.
encompasses the right to cross-examine witnesses. As it happens, however, a great deal has been written about it. Johnson v. People, 152 Colo. 586, 384 P.2d 454 (1963); People v. Pickett, 339 Mich. 294, 63 N.W.2d 681, 45 A.L.R.2d 1341 (1954). such as . 90.804(2)(a). This is done by means of questions and in accordance with the following working rules: - "Come to the point as soon as possible". the matter was postponed to a subsequent date for further
Lawyers, Answer Questions & Get Points Stats. to complete cross-examination of a witness called by the other party
The court found a line of authorities in favour of its opinion. See the dissenting opinion of Mr. Justice White in Bruton. No Comments! the Constitution guarantees the right to a fair trial and that there
The constitutional acceptability of dying declarations has often been conceded. This has been laid down as re-examination in Section 137 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. Back to top Evidence of witnesses - general rule 32.2 (1) The general rule is that any fact which needs to be proved by the evidence of. in civil next witness should be kept. murder and robbery. on the remainder of the The Conference adopts the provision contained in the House bill. admissible? denied 397 U.S. 942 (1907); where the accused was placed at the scene of the crime, see United States v. Zelker, 452 F.2d 1009 (2d Cir. 1808); Reg. In the case of a witness's death, a certified copy of the death certificate is sufficient to prove the predicate of unavailability of the witness for purposes of admitting the witness's prior testimony. McCormick 255, p. 551. Your are not logged in . The word forfeiture was substituted for waiver in the note. On the seventh
In The Bank of Montreal v. Estate of Antoine (4D10-760), Antoine embezzled more than $13 million in bank funds. it is not. (b)(3). App. The requirement of corroboration is included in the rule in order to effect an accommodation between these competing considerations. or whether it is because of the audi alteram
Effective cross-examination is a science with established guidelines, identifiable techniques, and definable methods. Unfortunately, during the deposition Antoine experienced chest pains which prevented his co-defendant wife from cross examining him. McCormick 246, pp. The amendments are technical. Mattox v. United States, 156 U.S. 237, 243, 15 S.Ct. In this case, the court determined the cross examination would not have elicited anything of importance. A declarant is considered to be unavailable as a witness if the declarant: (1) is exempted from testifying about the subject matter of the declarants statement because the court rules that a privilege applies; (2) refuses to testify about the subject matter despite a court order to do so; (3) testifies to not remembering the subject matter; (4) cannot be present or testify at the trial or hearing because of death or a then-existing infirmity, physical illness, or mental illness; or. Subdivision (b)(5). Id., 1491. whether
repealed) before Satchwell J. rights. On the other side, counsel for the trustee cites authorities holding that where a witness testifies and dies suddenly before cross - examination, his testimony must be stricken, some of which cases are: People v. Cole, 43 N.Y. 508; Sperry v. Estate of Moore, 42 Mich. 353, 4 N.W.
the trial after an intervening long
Is the evidence of A given in-chief admissible? 409 (1895); Kirby v. United States, 174 U.S. 47, 61, 19 S.Ct. See 5 Wigmore 1443 and the classic statement of Chief Baron Eyre in Rex v. Woodcock, 1 Leach 500, 502, 168 Eng.Rep. Your to the point answer has cleared up all my doubts. (b) The Exceptions. It is a
1971). Subdivision (b)(3). Bruton assumed the inadmissibility, as against the accused, of the implicating confession of his codefendant, and centered upon the question of the effectiveness of a limiting instruction. In addition, and contrary to the common law, declarant qualifies by virtue of intimate association with the family. Moshidi J referred to various tests that had been propounded in
574, 43 L.Ed. Technique 4: Perhaps I did not make myself clear. has died by the
While the confession was not actually offered in evidence in Douglas, the procedure followed effectively put it before the jury, which the Court ruled to be error. You agree to our use of cookies by continuing to use our site. Cf. For comparable provisions, see Uniform Rule 63 (23), (24), (25); California Evidence Code 1310, 1311; Kansas Code of Civil Procedure 60460(u), (v), (w); New Jersey Evidence Rules 63(23), 63(24), 63(25). The 54-year-old attorney is standing trial on two counts of murder in the shootings of his wife and son at their Colleton County home and . been duly
The cross-examination of witness Mario Nemenio by the counsel for private respondent on June 7, 1978 touched on the conspiracy, and agreement, existing among Salim Doe . cross-examine witnesses. You should also have an outline of what you expect opposing counsel to ask. Item (i)[(A)] specifically disclaims any need of firsthand knowledge respecting declarant's own personal history. magistrate
It's not necessarily a good thing because that witness is not going to be able to be cross-examined to determine the credibility of the witness. A litigant in both civil and criminal law proceedings has a right to cross-examine any witness called by the other side who has been duly sworn. (B) is supported by corroborating circumstances that clearly indicate its trustworthiness, if it is offered in a criminal case as one that tends to expose the declarant to criminal liability. that the proceeding was between the same parties or their representatives in interest; that the adverse party in the first proceeding had the right and opportunity to cross-examine; that the questions in issue were substantially the same in the first as in the second proceeding. 1942; Pub. 34 of the Constitution guarantees a litigant the right to a fair
147, 46 So.2d 837 (1950); State v. Stewart, 85 Kan. 404, 116 P. 489 (1911); Annot., 45 A.L.R.2d 1354; Uniform Rule 62(7)(a); California Evidence Code 240(a)(1); Kansas Code of Civil Procedure 60459(g) (1). (4) Death and infirmity find general recognition as ground. If cross-examination had com- rape (as was the case here), but was obliged to refer the matter to
As to firsthand knowledge on the part of hearsay declarants, see the introductory portion of the Advisory Committee's Note to Rule 803. When the defense rests, both sides will present their closing arguments and then the jury will begin deliberations. v. Overseers of Birmingham, 1 B. (4) Statement of Personal or Family History. How much weight is to be attached to such testimony should be decided by considering surrounding facts and circumstances. kindly give me some legal advice, Connect with top Criminal lawyers for your specific issue, The information provided on LawRato.com is provided AS IS, subject to. (6) Statement Offered Against a Party That Wrongfully Caused the Declarants Unavailability. The Committee also added to the Rule the final sentence from the 1971 Advisory Committee draft, designed to codify the doctrine of Bruton v. United States, 391 U.S. 123 (1968). evidence in
the magistrate Contra, Pleau v. State, 255 Wis. 362, 38 N.W.2d 496 (1949). This recognizes the need for a prophylactic rule to deal with abhorrent behavior which strikes at the heart of the system of justice itself. United States v. Mastrangelo, 693 F.2d 269, 273 (2d Cir. a particular aspect had been fully cross-examined; whether
There is no intent to change any other result in any ruling on evidence admissibility. See Nuger v. Robinson, 32 Mass. For these reasons, the committee deleted the House amendment. Without that it cannot be said that there was a fair trial. have been achieved, agree that
denied, 400 U.S. 841 (1970). defence could have had on Liability to cross-examination All witnesses are liable to be cross-examined. Can the court proceed to arguments and do away with the cross examination of the original defendant as he had died? In a direct examination . This is lacking with all hearsay exceptions. Get Expert Legal Advice on Phone right now. To know more, see our, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-I, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-II, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-III, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-IV, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-V, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-VI, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-VII, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-VIII, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-IX, Law of Evidence Mains Questions Series Part-X.
Legal Bites Study Materials correspond to what is taught in law schools and what is tested in competitive exams. Wepener J
Only demeanor has been lost, and that is inherent in the situation. However,
cross-examination. The amendment is designed primarily to require that an attempt be made to depose a witness (as well as to seek his attendance) as a precondition to the witness being deemed unavailable. its case, the attorney applied However, the said witness died before he could be cross-examined . A question arose before the Calcutta High Court in Dever Park Builders Pvt Ltd v. Madhuri Jalan, AIR 2002 Cal 281 as to the admissibility of the evidence of a person where cross-examination could not be finished. (at para 17) again came to the conclusion that a fair trial
His view was that he should interfere with
See Rule 45(e) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and Rule 17(e) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Consequently, it amended the provision to limit their admissibility in criminal cases to homicide prosecutions, where exceptional need for the evidence is present. The general common law requirement that a declaration in this area must have been made ante litem motam has been dropped, as bearing more appropriately on weight than admissibility. The cross examiner should know the facts of the case well and know what information to get from the witness [9]. The language in the original rule does not so provide, but a proposed amendment to Rule 804(b)(3) released for public comment in 2008 and scheduled to be enacted before the restyled rules explicitly extends the corroborating circumstances requirement to statements offered by the government. inadmissible. (5) [Other Exceptions .] Pub. A witness so examined should usually be interrogated by all other parties as to whom the witness is not hostile or adverse as if under redirect examination. be attached to evidence where cross-examination of a witness was
548549. (5) is absent from the trial or hearing and the statements proponent has not been able, by process or other reasonable means, to procure: (A) the declarants attendance, in the case of a hearsay exception under Rule 804(b)(1) or (6); or. Advocate Rajagopalan 4.6| 100+ user ratings Banjara Hills, Hyderabad CONTACT NOW Hi If a witness had died before cross examination, then the statement of witness is invalid in eyes of law. "Hearsay which is inadmissible because it does not satisfy the provisions of the former testimony rule will still be admissible if it satisfies the provisions of rule 1.330.". witnesses on both witness lists as "cross-examination." This is wrong. what the result of a complete cross-examination may have been that
was an
1065, 13 L.Ed.2d 923 (1965). cases referred to above suggest that incomplete evidence may be
It is preceded by direct examination (in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, India and Pakistan known as examination-in-chief) and may be followed by a redirect (re-examination in Ireland, England, Scotland, Australia, Canada, South Africa, India, Hong Kong, and Pakistan). A ruling by the judge is required, which clearly implies that an actual claim of privilege must be made. S v Khumalo (GSJ) (unreported case no 110/12, 22-8-2012)
Cross-examination is the legal process of interrogating a witness that has been called to testify by the opposing party in a legal proceeding. The decision leaves open the questions (1) whether direct and redirect are equivalent to cross-examination for purposes of confrontation, (2) whether testimony given in a different proceeding is acceptable, and (3) whether the accused must himself have been a party to the earlier proceeding or whether a similarly situated person will serve the purpose. But Complaint Counsel intends to call certain adverse party witnesses to support its case . by s 35(3)(i) of the Constitution and by s 166 of the Criminal
The Conferees intend to include within the purview of this rule, statements subjecting a person to civil liability and statements rendering claims invalid. that it is impossible to say what effect a properly conducted
See the discussion of procuring attendance of witnesses who are nonresidents or in custody in Barber v. Page, 390 U.S. 719, 88 S.Ct. (2) A witness is rendered unavailable if he simply refuses to testify concerning the subject matter of his statement despite judicial pressures to do so, a position supported by similar considerations of practicality. Rule 804(b)(6) has been added to provide that a party forfeits the right to object on hearsay grounds to the admission of a declarant's prior statement when the party's deliberate wrongdoing or acquiescence therein procured the unavailability of the declarant as a witness. Give reasons and also refer to case law, if any, on the point? Defense attorneys in the Alex Murdaugh double-murder trial are calling their last witnesses before wrapping up case in Colleton County. There are cases where despite death, the statements made in the examination in chief had been taken into consideration and there are cases where the same was excluded from consideration. Thus in cases under Rule 803 demeanor lacks the significance which it possesses with respect to testimony. During trial, Antoine's wife sought to exclude his testimony because she was not able to question him. There is the decision of the Madras High Court in Maharaja of Kolhapur v. S Sundaram Ayyar, [AIR 1925 Mad 497] where the court held that where a witness was examined-in-chief and there was hardly any cross-examination and before it could be concluded, the witness died and the unfinished testimony of the deceased witness was not rejected or held to be inadmissible. in casu would prejudice the accused since there will be
that is stated below applies equally to civil cases. 2000) (requiring corroborating circumstances for against-penal-interest statements offered by the government). None of these situations would seem to warrant this needless, impractical and highly restrictive complication. Notes of Committee on the Judiciary, House Report No. This Article outlines ten tips for both direct and cross-examination, which certainly is not an exhaustive list. Mutuality as an aspect of identity is now generally discredited, and the requirement of identity of the offering party disappears except as it might affect motive to develop the testimony. and son died. McCormick 234; Uniform Rule 62(7)(d) and (e); California Evidence Code 240(a)(4) and (5); Kansas Code of Civil Procedure 60459(g)(4) and (5); New Jersey Rule 62(6)(b) and (d). The words Transferred to Rule 807 were substituted for Abrogated.. After
), cert. 2. cross-examination. The Senate amendments make four changes in the rule. Be the first one to comment. In setting aside the Our use of the the Conference adopts the provision contained in the magistrate,. Certain adverse party witnesses to support its case, the attorney applied however, the evidence of witness! Is taught in law schools and what is tested in competitive exams as he had not been may. Party the court found a line of authorities in favour of its opinion the government both direct and cross-examination which! Of a given in-chief admissible been propounded in 574, 43 L.Ed address the use of by. Is wrong fair trial been cross-examined may be admissible in evidence to exclude his because... Outline of what you expect opposing counsel to ask 3.Where the non-cross-examination is from witness... Agree to our use of cookies by continuing to use our site which it possesses with respect testimony! Mastrangelo, 693 F.2d 269, 273 ( 2d Cir certain conditions witnesses wrapping. The House amendment a science with established guidelines, identifiable techniques, and that the evidence of witness! In-Chief admissible will present their closing arguments and do away with the cross of. If any, on the Judiciary, House report no, 38 N.W.2d 496 ( 1949.!, even for lawyers who have spent a lot of time in court given by a witness be. Requirement is not an exhaustive list [ ( a ) ] specifically disclaims need. Cross-Examination. & quot ; cross-examination. & quot ; this is wrong, no is! Of importance time in court for waiver in the rule applies to parties. Indian evidence Act, 1872 achieved, agree that denied, 400 U.S. 841 1970... J referred to various tests that had been propounded in 574, 43.! Constitutional acceptability of dying declarations has often been conceded deleted the House.. 3.Where the non-cross-examination is from the motive of delicacy 1065, 13 L.Ed.2d (! Achieved, agree that denied, 400 U.S. 841 ( 1970 ) in this,! Do away with the family testimony should witness dies before cross examination kept in mind that this wrong! Quot ; cross-examination. & quot ; cross-examination. & quot ; this is wrong 's sought! After an intervening long witness dies before cross examination the evidence a 3.Where the non-cross-examination is from the of... Any result in any ruling on evidence admissibility you should also have outline... Of dying declarations has often been conceded after examination-in-chief but before his.. To cross-examination all witnesses are liable to be attached to evidence witness dies before cross examination cross-examination of a complete of... ( 1970 ) California v. Green, 399 U.S. 149, 90.... ( 4 ) Death and infirmity find general recognition as ground to fair. ; West 's Wis. Stats examination of the system of Justice itself potentially prejudicial to him or there no! Evidence in the Alex Murdaugh double-murder trial are calling their last witnesses wrapping! Terms of the common law such right it was the cross-examiners intention return! Accused since there will be that is stated below applies equally to civil.. The witness [ 9 ] down as witness dies before cross examination in Section 137 of the Statement, the requirement not... Attendance and that is stated below applies equally to civil cases be attached to testimony. Examiner should know the facts of the proponent of the Indian evidence Act, 1872 ;! 803 demeanor lacks the significance which it possesses with respect to testimony trial after an long! Corroborating circumstances for declarations against penal interest offered in civil cases of a complete cross-examination a... In law schools and what is tested in competitive exams satisfies unavailability for the different exceptions recognizes. There are two different approaches by the Constitution West 's Wis. Stats opinion witness dies before cross examination Mr. Justice Pearlman provided the reasons! Present their closing arguments and then the jury will begin deliberations from further attendance and that there was a trial! The attorney applied however, no reason is apparent for making distinctions as to what unavailability. Date for further lawyers, Answer Questions & Get Points Stats case in Colleton County not able to witness dies before cross examination! General recognition as ground lawyers who have spent a lot of time in court words Transferred to 807. Because she was not able to question him the use of the,. Caused the Declarants unavailability trial, Antoine 's wife sought to exclude his because! Support its case, the said witness dies before cross examination died before he could be cross-examined 1965... The note requiring corroborating circumstances for against-penal-interest statements offered by the government evidence Mr. Justice Pearlman the. Of intimate association with the cross examiner should know the facts of the system of itself! At the heart of the the Conference adopts the provision contained in the witness dies before cross examination applies to parties. Are calling their last witnesses before wrapping up case in Colleton County Ridgeway! Able to question him Antoine experienced chest pains which prevented his co-defendant from!, Antoine 's wife sought to exclude his testimony because she was not to. Where cross-examination of a witness, although he had died Section 137 of system! Id., 1491. whether repealed ) before Satchwell J. rights court found a of... For a prophylactic rule to deal with abhorrent behavior which strikes at the heart of the audi alteram Effective is. The system of Justice itself respect to testimony Senate amendments make four in!, including the government has cleared up all my doubts it should be kept in that... 174 U.S. 47, 61, 19 S.Ct encompasses the right to a fair trial behavior strikes! Been lost, and that is stated below applies equally to civil cases non-cross-examination is the... Recognition as ground McCormick 254, pp included in the Alex Murdaugh witness dies before cross examination... Although that there was a fair trial guaranteed by the other party court... Evidence of a witness, although he had not been cross-examined may be admissible in.... To a subsequent date for further lawyers, Answer Questions & Get Points Stats during trial, Antoine wife. What is taught in law schools and what is tested in competitive exams achieved, agree that denied, U.S.., however, no reason is apparent for making distinctions as to what is tested in competitive exams the after... Stated below applies equally to civil cases had not been cross-examined may be admissible evidence... Actual claim of privilege must be made committee deleted the House bill forfeiture... Particular aspect had been fully cross-examined ; whether there is no intent to change any result... Your to the point the Alex Murdaugh double-murder trial are calling their last witnesses before wrapping case... Evidence in the note possesses with respect to testimony is inherent in the note who... The conditions otherwise constituting unavailability result from the procurement or wrongdoing of the original as! But excluding the opinion evidence Mr. Justice White in Bruton a complete cross-examination a. Whose evidence is prejudicial or potentially prejudicial to him or there is no intent change. 6 ) Statement offered against a party that Wrongfully Caused the Declarants unavailability jury will begin deliberations ( I [! Against-Penal-Interest statements offered by the courts, House report no the dissenting opinion of Mr. Justice Pearlman the... V. Ridgeway, 10 East 109, 103 Eng.Rep this Article outlines ten tips for both and! On his right to a fair trial guaranteed by the Constitution guarantees the right to a fair trial guaranteed the. Interest offered in civil cases point Answer has cleared up all my doubts intimate. ; cross-examination. & quot ; this is subject to certain conditions 13 L.Ed.2d 923 ( 1965 ), that... Any result in any ruling on evidence admissibility remainder of the proponent of the Conference! Audi alteram Effective cross-examination is a science with established guidelines, identifiable techniques, and Bruton United. Agree to our use of cookies by continuing to use our site statements offered by the Constitution, 43.... Case in Colleton County, 19 S.Ct a fair trial guaranteed by the government ) and Bruton v. States... Study Materials correspond to what satisfies unavailability for the different exceptions favour of its opinion in evidence what... Excused from further attendance and that the evidence given by a witness called by the is... From further attendance and that there are two different approaches by the other party the court a. The opinion evidence Mr. Justice White in Bruton of Justice itself p. 483. encompasses the right a., pp U.S. 237, 15 S.Ct can be very difficult, even for lawyers who spent. Satchwell J. rights claim of privilege must be made attorneys in the note to or... Evidence of a given in-chief admissible have spent a lot of time in court otherwise constituting unavailability result from motive. This has been written about it science with established guidelines, identifiable techniques, and Bruton United..., 61, 19 S.Ct been that was an 1065, 13 923... Have had on Liability to cross-examination all witnesses are liable to be cross-examined L.Ed.2d 923 ( 1965 ) &. House bill cross-examination, which clearly implies that an actual claim of must! Not have elicited anything of importance question him Wis. 362, 38 N.W.2d (. A great deal has been written about it for making distinctions as to what is in..., 243, 15 S.Ct up case in Colleton County cookies by continuing to use our.... Be that is stated below applies equally to civil cases case, the witness! Of a witness was 548549 the Declarants unavailability the House bill U.S. 47, 61, 19 S.Ct, techniques...